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                      Highways/Roads in Garhwal in Pal /Shah Era
Administration, Social and Cultural Characteristics History of Garhwal in Shah Dynasty -22 

History of Garhwal including Haridwar (1223- 1804 AD) –part -211     
   History of Uttarakhand (Garhwal, Kumaon and Haridwar) -459 
                        By: Bhishma Kukreti (A History Research Student)
                The Highways of older time in garhwal neither could be compared to today’s walking or footpath  road of plains or hills nor with the highways /roads of plains of old time.
                         Pilgrim Raod 
  The important or major Pilgrim Road was Haridwar to Mana or Badrinath via Lakshman Jhula, Mohanchatti (Fulchatti), Bandarbhel, Mahdevchatti, Simal-Khnad, Kandi, Vyaschatti, Devprayag, Shrinagar, Rudraprayag, Vishnuprayag .
 There was a highway from Devprayag to Gangotri and Yamunotri. Another Highway was from Rudraprayag to Kedarnath. From Badrinath the highway used to go to Kailash via Daba Tibet. From Joshimath, there was another Highway to Tibet via Neeti,
 The path from Lakshman Jhula to Shrinagar was very difficult terrine.
          Nazibabad to Shrinagar Roads
 A Highway was from Nazbabad to Shrinagar via Khohdwar or Kotdwara, Hanuman Mandir, Dadmandi, Bhairongarh (Dwarikhal), Banghat- Bilkhet, Naithana, Advani, Teka ka manda, Chetkoti to Shrinagar.
             Dehradun to Yamunotri –Gangotri roads
  There were difficult roads from Dehradun to Yamunotri or Uttarkashi via jaunsar Bhabhar. Another road was Mussoorie Danda, old Tihri. From Old Tehri there was road for Gangotri and Yamunotri. The road from Tehri to Shrinagar was via Paukhal, Dangchaura, Ranihat. From ranihat, there was Ganga port where boats or Dangi were used to cross Alaknanda. There was a way to Barahat from Dehradun via Mussoorie, Dharasu. The path for Rishikesh from Dehradun was also there.
                Kumaon to Shrinagar Highways 
 There were following paths –
Doti to Shrinagar –
Doti (Nepal) to Shrinagar road was via to Brahmdev Mandi (cross Kali Ganga) to Kathgodam, Almora, Chhakhata, Bhimtal, where road from Tarai met. From here road used to go to Kahsipur then Kalagarh (cross Ramganga here) and then Khohdwar or Kotdwara.
Another road from Almora to Shrinagar was via Hvalbag, Dwarhat, Mahargaon, Chaukhatiya (cross Ramganga) Mehalchauri of Lohabgarhi, Gairsain, Chandpurgarhi, Bhainswada, Khirsu, Devalgarh to Shrinagar.
Third road from Almora to Shrinagar was via Bageshwar, baijnath, Gwaldam, Pindar valley, Tharali, Narayanbagad, Simli, Karnprayag, Rudrapryag, Khankara to Shrinagar.
Fourth road was from Almora to Shrinagar via Bhikhiyasain, Deghat , Gujadigarhi, Devlikhal and via Nayar valley to Shringar.
There was difficult road from Jauhar to Neeti.
      All the above roads were difficult roads and at many places the human being has to walk on their chest than foot.

Copyright@ Bhishma Kukreti Mumbai, India, bckukreti@gmail.com 16/10/2014
History of Garhwal – Kumaon-Haridwar (Uttarakhand, India) to be continued… Part -460
(The History of Garhwal, Kumaon, Haridwar write up is aimed for general readers)
History of Garhwal from 1223-1804 to be continued in next chapter ….
XX    
Notes on South Asian Modern Period  History of Garhwal;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Pauri Garhwal; South Asian  Modern Period   History of Chamoli Garhwal;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Rudraprayag Garhwal;  South Asian Modern  History of Tehri Garhwal;  South Asian Modern  History of Uttarkashi Garhwal;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Dehradun, Garhwal;  Modern  History of Haridwar ;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Manglaur, Haridwar;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Rurkee Haridwar ;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Bahadarpur Haridwar ; South Asian Modern Period  History of Haridwar district, History of Characteristics of Garhwal Kings Shah dynasty ,  to be continued
XX
Highways in Garhwal in Pal /Shah Era; Highways in Garhwal in Pal /Shah Era in context Garhwal History; Highways in Garhwal in Pal /Shah Era in context Haridwar Garhwal History; Highways in Garhwal in Pal /Shah Era in context Dehradun Garhwal History; Highways in Garhwal in Pal /Shah Era in context Uttarkashi Garhwal History; Highways in Garhwal in Pal /Shah Era in context Tehri Garhwal History; Highways in Garhwal in Pal /Shah Era in context Rudraprayag Garhwal History; Highways in Garhwal in Pal /Shah Era in context Chamoli Garhwal History; Highways in Garhwal in Pal /Shah Era in context Pauri Garhwal History;

               Export and Import in Garhwal in Pal /Shah Era
Administration, Social and Cultural Characteristics History of Garhwal in Shah Dynasty -24 

History of Garhwal including Haridwar (1223- 1804 AD) –part -213     
   History of Uttarakhand (Garhwal, Kumaon and Haridwar) -461 
                        By: Bhishma Kukreti (A History Research Student)

         The following materials of Garhwal were sold in Wholesale Markets (Mandi) of Bhabhar (Kotdwara and Bijnor) –
                             Agro products
     Farmers used to export wheat, barley, paddy, Japanese Barnyard millets, Finger Millets, Hog Millets, Italian Millets, Amaranths; Ogal; Black gram, lentils, horse gram, Souabean; mustard types of grains and pulses. Other agro products as Turmeric, ginger,  Taro were exported from Garhwal. People used to export fruits as Fig, Himalyan Malberry, Berries, lemon, pumpkins, nuts, oranges etc. People also grew Opium for export.
   Charas was commonly used by Baba, Mahatma and People used to gro hemp for Charas and fiber. Hemp fiber had demand in Bhabhar (including Bijnor), Haridwar and Rishikesh.
 People used to produce Ghee, Honey and nurture animals as horses, Bull, Buffalo, cows, goats, etc for Trade.
                   Forest Produces
            People used to collect various spices as black cumin, Indian bay leaves, Hill Cinnamon, Indian gooseberry, Nirbishi, Mari, Aracha, Chirayta etc from forests and used to export.
 Forest honey had good demand in plains.
 Te wood was export from Garhwal in huge quantity.
Animals and animal produces were also exported.
Medical herbs had very good demand and were exported in raw or medicine forms.
                      House Hold Products 
 People used to export woolen produces, wooden articles, metal vessels and metal weaponsetc, products of Bamboo species, paper, bark and skin.
                                      Minerals
     Iron ores, copper ores, borax, salt , gold dust, shilajit, chalk mud, color soil, sankhiya etc were exported in volumes.
                                Human or Slave Sales
    People used to sell children, widows to Marcha of Tibet and Rohillas.

                                     Import
1-Food produces as Gud, suger; Supari, coconut, spices of south India, tobacco, tobacco leaves, fruits and flowers.
2- Dress and dresses materials was imported as cotton was not grown in hills.
3- Various colors
4-Metals and metal produces
5-Ornaments- various ornaments
Miscellaneous-– guns, gun powders, paper, ink etc
                     Traders
 As far as Garhwalis were concerned there was no casts of trading communities. Individuals used to act as traders. Tibetans, Marcha had trading communities.
  In later stage, Muslim traders especially for leather works settled in some part of Garhwal especially in Shrinagar, Bhabhar.
                          Barter System
             In rural region, Barter system was the main source of exchanges of materials, services and consultation.
                   Coins

 There was State mint for Silver coins or Timasi in Shrinagar. Four Garhwali or Gorkhali Timasi  equal to one Garhwali rupee and five Timasi was equal to one Farukhabadi rupee.
 Spain dollar and other coins used to come to Garhwal too.
 Copper mint used to produce Taka. One Timasi was equal to ten taka.


Copyright@ Bhishma Kukreti Mumbai, India, bckukreti@gmail.com 19/10/2014
History of Garhwal – Kumaon-Haridwar (Uttarakhand, India) to be continued… Part -462
(The History of Garhwal, Kumaon, Haridwar write up is aimed for general readers)
History of Garhwal from 1223-1804 to be continued in next chapter ….
XX    
Notes on South Asian Modern Period  History of Garhwal;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Pauri Garhwal; South Asian  Modern Period   History of Chamoli Garhwal;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Rudraprayag Garhwal;  South Asian Modern  History of Tehri Garhwal;  South Asian Modern  History of Uttarkashi Garhwal;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Dehradun, Garhwal;  Modern  History of Haridwar ;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Manglaur, Haridwar;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Rurkee Haridwar ;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Bahadarpur Haridwar ; South Asian Modern Period  History of Haridwar district, History of Characteristics of Garhwal Kings Shah dynasty ,  to be continued
XX

  Defense or Army Administration in Garhwal in Pal/Shah Era

Administration, Social and Cultural Characteristics History of Garhwal in Shah Dynasty -26 

History of Garhwal including Haridwar (1223- 1804 AD) –part -215     
   History of Uttarakhand (Garhwal, Kumaon and Haridwar) -463 
                        By: Bhishma Kukreti (A History Research Student)

                                   Solders
    Initial period of Pal dynasty, Garhwal kings appointed solders locally – Lohaba, Badhan and Salan. Those solders were called Lobhi Solders, Badhani Solders and Salani solders. On later period, Garhwal Kings started appointing solders from outside too. The migrated Hindus also got place in the Garhwal Kingdom Army. Kings also appointed Muslim (Rohilla solders) to strengthen the defense. In the Mahipat Shah period, there were soldiers from Delhi (Dilwali); Diswali (Muslims from Plains) and Himachal Pradesh.
        There was a commander called Tunwar in Medanishah army who captured Butaulgarh. Garhwal Kings of later era used to appoint soldiers from Kangda, Himachal Pradesh too. Maedni Shah also helped Himachal Kings to fight with Guru Govind Singh. There were Faujdar and Senanayk from Himachal in the army of Pradip Shah.
                   Appointment Procedure for Solders 

          As Mughal Emperors, Garhwal King did not appoint solders directly. Faujdar and Goldar used to appoint the solders. There is no record the timing of such procedure of appointing solders by Faujdar and Goldar and not directly by the Kingdom.
  Garhwal King used to offer Jagir (Land) to Faujdar and Goldar for paying salaries to the solders.
 Goldar or Faujdar used to appoint their devotees from their own regions and from their own castes. There was no particular scientific procedure for selecting solders by Faujdar or Goldar. The main criteria for appointing solder were the person should have strong built and desire for using arrow, bow, spears etc.
   Faujdar did not care much for training and  exercises   for his solders.
Copyright@ Bhishma Kukreti Mumbai, India, bckukreti@gmail.com 23/10/2014
History of Garhwal – Kumaon-Haridwar (Uttarakhand, India) to be continued… Part -464
(The History of Garhwal, Kumaon, Haridwar write up is aimed for general readers)
History of Garhwal from 1223-1804 to be continued in next chapter ….
History of Characteristics of Garhwal Kings Shah dynasty, to be continued

XX    
Notes on South Asian Modern Period  History of Garhwal;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Pauri Garhwal; South Asian  Modern Period   History of Chamoli Garhwal;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Rudraprayag Garhwal;  South Asian Modern  History of Tehri Garhwal;  South Asian Modern  History of Uttarkashi Garhwal;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Dehradun, Garhwal;  Modern  History of Haridwar ;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Manglaur, Haridwar;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Rurkee Haridwar ;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Bahadarpur Haridwar ; South Asian Modern Period  History of Haridwar district, South Asian History of Bijnor old Garhwal
XX
Defense or Army Administration in Garhwal in Pal/Shah Era; Defense or Army Administration in Garhwal in Pal/Shah Era in context Rudraprayag Garhwal History; Defense or Army Administration in Garhwal in Pal/Shah Era in context Tehri Garhwal History; Defense or Army Administration in Garhwal in Pal/Shah Era in context Uttarkashi Garhwal History; Defense or Army Administration in Garhwal in Pal/Shah Era in context Dehradun Garhwal History; Defense or Army Administration in Garhwal in Pal/Shah Era in context Haridwar Garhwal History; Defense or Army Administration in Garhwal in Pal/Shah Era in context Bijnor, old Garhwal History; Defense or Army Administration in Garhwal in Pal/Shah Era in context Pauri Garhwal History; Defense or Army Administration in Garhwal in Pal/Shah Era in context Chamoli Garhwal History;

                  Number of Military Soldiers in Garhwal in Pal /Shah Era
Administration, Social and Cultural Characteristics History of Garhwal in Shah Dynasty -28 

History of Garhwal including Haridwar (1223- 1804 AD) –part -217     
   History of Uttarakhand (Garhwal, Kumaon and Haridwar) -465 
                        By: Bhishma Kukreti (A History Research Student)

  According to available historical records, following numbers of soldiers were in Garhwal Kingdom at various times –
1-Jesuit traveler Antonio de Andrade stated (1623) that there were eighty thousand soldiers including cavalries.
2-in 1624, in Shyam Shah period, there were 12000 soldiers with 11000 guns and twenty canons  in first battalion for Tibet attack, second battalion had 20, 000 soldiers and third battalion had lesser soldiers. According to Father Azevedo, the Garhwal Kingdom army was having 40,000 soldiers.
3- According to Maularam, when in 1635, Mahipat Shah attacked on Kumaun, there were one and quarter lakh soldiers in Garhwal Army.
4- When Pradip Shah attacked on Kumaon in 1755, there were one and quarter lakh soldiers in Garhwal Army.
5- According to copper plate inscription to Shivdev Joshi by Kumaon King Deepchand, there were three and half lakh soldiers in Garhwal Army.
6- According to Hardwicke in 1796, there were permanent 1000 soldiers in Shrinagar, and other 4000 were in other parts. There were six thousand soldiers in Langurgadh in 1792.
   Definitely, it was not possible to have 1, 00, 000 or more soldiers in Garhwal Kingdom. There were 100000 or 150000 able or healthy men in Garhwal. That means the numbers of soldiers would be between thirty and forty thousand only.   
  Usually, Thokdar used to keep less soldiers but would boost (lied) the numbers before the King.When King used to see the numbers, Thokdar used to call soldiers from other Thokdars.
When needed Thokdar used to call Padhan and they used to send men with wood rods.
 
Copyright@ Bhishma Kukreti Mumbai, India, bckukreti@gmail.com 26/10/2014
History of Garhwal – Kumaon-Haridwar (Uttarakhand, India) to be continued… Part -466
(The History of Garhwal, Kumaon, Haridwar write up is aimed for general readers)
History of Garhwal from 1223-1804 to be continued in next chapter ….
History of Characteristics of Garhwal Kings Shah dynasty, to be continued

XX    
Notes on South Asian Modern Period  History of Garhwal;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Pauri Garhwal; South Asian  Modern Period   History of Chamoli Garhwal;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Rudraprayag Garhwal;  South Asian Modern  History of Tehri Garhwal;  South Asian Modern  History of Uttarkashi Garhwal;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Dehradun, Garhwal;  Modern  History of Haridwar ;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Manglaur, Haridwar;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Rurkee Haridwar ;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Bahadarpur Haridwar ; South Asian Modern Period  History of Haridwar district, South Asian History of Bijnor old Garhwal
XX

Foreign Policy of Garhwal Kings in Pal /Shah Period
Administration, Social and Cultural Characteristics History of Garhwal in Shah Dynasty -30 

History of Garhwal including Haridwar (1223- 1804 AD) –part -219     
   History of Uttarakhand (Garhwal, Kumaon and Haridwar) -467 
                        By: Bhishma Kukreti (A History Research Student)

            Initially, Ajaypal and his immediate heirs were busy in winning Garhpati (chieftains of a Garhi). When they won the regions of today’s Dehradun, today’s Uttarkashi, present Bijnor, present Haridwar, present whole Garhwal, the Garhpati were not able to fight back with Garhwal Kings.  Garhpati were given profitable position as Thokdar etc.   In Garhwal and Kumaoni Garhwali and Kumauni languages were developed and the languages became emotional bondage among the people of respective regions.
                             Wars with Neighboring Countries
 Though, there was no internal resistance from ex-chieftains and their heirs, the Garhwal Kingdom faced many disturbances from neighboring countries because-
1-enmey attacking or looting border regions
2-Attacking neighboring countries
3-To attack on neighboring kingdom to help enemy of neighbor
Garhwal King------------Tibet-------Kumaun---Sirmour-----Muslim ---Others---Total
Ajaypal--------------------1-------------1----------------------------------------------------2
Sahajpal--------------------1------------------------------------------3------------------------4
Balbhadra---------------------------------1---------------------------1-------------------------2
Manshah--------------------1--------------8-----------4--------------------------------------13
Shyamshah------------------2------------------------------------------------------------------2
Mahipati Shah--------------1--------------1-------------2------------------------------------4
Nkkatirani----------------------------------------------------------------1--------------------1
Prithvipati----------------------------------2-------------3---------------3------------------8
Medanishah--------------------------------4-------------1-----------------------------------5
Fateshah--------------1--------------------10------------1---------------2----------5--------19
PradipShah----------------------------------4------------------------------2---------3---------9
LalitShah-------------------------------------1-----------1----------------2-----------4--------8
Jaikirti----------------------------------------1------------------------------------------2--------3
Pradyuman----------------------------------2-------------------------------------------3--------5
Total---------------------7-------------------35--------------12--------------14--------17------85
That shows that Garhwal Kingdom were engaged in war after every two years.In wars, people suffered the more than the Kings.
 The Investigating System was weak. Many times, the rebellion used to come to capital and the kings was unaware about the revolting chieftain.


Copyright@ Bhishma Kukreti Mumbai, India, bckukreti@gmail.com 28/10/2014
History of Garhwal – Kumaon-Haridwar (Uttarakhand, India) to be continued… Part -468
(The History of Garhwal, Kumaon, Haridwar write up is aimed for general readers)
History of Garhwal from 1223-1804 to be continued in next chapter ….
History of Characteristics of Garhwal Kings Shah dynasty, to be continued

XX    
Notes on South Asian Modern Period  History of Garhwal;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Pauri Garhwal; South Asian  Modern Period   History of Chamoli Garhwal;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Rudraprayag Garhwal;  South Asian Modern  History of Tehri Garhwal;  South Asian Modern  History of Uttarkashi Garhwal;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Dehradun, Garhwal;  Modern  History of Haridwar ;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Manglaur, Haridwar;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Rurkee Haridwar ;  South Asian Modern Period   History of Bahadarpur Haridwar ; South Asian Modern Period  History of Haridwar district, South Asian History of Bijnor old Garhwal
XX
Foreign Policy of Garhwal Kings in Pal /Shah Period; Foreign Policy of Garhwal Kings in Pal /Shah Period in context Haridwar Garhwal History; Foreign Policy of Garhwal Kings in Pal /Shah Period in context Garhwal History;  Foreign Policy of Garhwal Kings in Pal /Shah Period in context Dehradun Garhwal History; Foreign Policy of Garhwal Kings in Pal /Shah Period in context Uttarkashi Garhwal History; Foreign Policy of Garhwal Kings in Pal /Shah Period in context Tehri Garhwal History; Foreign Policy of Garhwal Kings in Pal /Shah Period in context Rudraprayag Garhwal History;  Foreign Policy of Garhwal Kings in Pal /Shah Period in context Chamoli Garhwal History; Foreign Policy of Garhwal Kings in Pal /Shah Period in context Pauri Garhwal History; Foreign Policy of Garhwal Kings in Pal /Shah Period in context Bijnor district  History;